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Introduction

The concept of a reusable space vehicle was first considered in the 1950s by both the American and Russian space agencies, however it would be some time before either country developed a workable design. In 1972, President Nixon announced that the United States would develop a reusable space vehicle called the Space Shuttle. It was decided that the Space Shuttle would be a delta-winged aircraftlike orbiter about the size of a DC-9 aircraft, mounted at launch on a large, expendable liquid-propellant tank and two recoverable, reusable solid-propellant rocket boosters that would drop away in flight. It would have a cargo bay for carrying both civilian and military payloads of up to 29,500 kilograms at a time, and each Shuttle was to have a lifetime of 100 space missions. The first American Space Shuttle flight took place in 1981. The success of the American Space Shuttle programme revived the interest of the Soviet Union who began their own programme in the 1980s. Only one space flight was made by a Russian shuttle before the programme was cancelled. This took place in 1988 and was unmanned. Information on all the American and Russian shuttles can be found below.

American Shuttles

Russian Shuttles

Main Propulsion Test Article (MPTA-098)

The Main Propulsion Test Article (MPTA-098) consisted of an Orbiter aft-fuselage; a truss arrangement that simulated the Orbiter mid-fuselage and a complete Space Shuttle Main Engine thrust structure including all main propulsion system plumbing and electrical systems. The unit was shipped to the National Space Technology Laboratory (NSTL) on 24th June 1977 where it was joined with the Main Propulsion Test Article External Tank (MPTA-ET) and used for static engine tests. The MPTA-ET is now located at the Alabama Space and Rocket Centre where it is mounted to the Pathfinder, while MPTA-098 is at the Stennis Space Centre in Mississippi. MPTA-098 suffered major structural damage on 2nd July 1979 due to a fractured fuel valve, testing resumed two months later but was delayed again when a liquid oxygen turbopump failed. It was only on 17th December 1979 that a complete static firing of all 3 main engines was accomplished. On 17th January 1981, just three months prior to the scheduled STS-1 launch date, MPTA-098 successfully demonstrated a 625-second firing. The three flight capable engines from Columbia were removed, shipped to NSTL, and installed on MPTA-098 where they successfully completed a flight mission demonstration test. The engines were then shipped back to the Kennedy Space Centre and installed on Columbia where they successfully performed a Flight Readiness Firing on 20th February, clearing the way for the launch of STS-1 on 12th April 1981.

Pathfinder Shuttle Test Article

The Pathfinder is a 75 tonne mock up of an Orbiter that was created to work out the procedures for moving and handling the shuttle. It was a steel structure roughly the size, weight and shape of an orbiter. It was constructed at Marshall Space Flight Centre (MSFC) in 1977 and was used as a substitute for Enterprise to test road cranes. Pathfinder sat in storage for many years until a group of Japanese businessmen offered to spend $1,000,000 to modify the vehicle to more closely resemble a real Orbiter. They used it at the Great Space Shuttle Exposition in Tokyo. Afterwards, it was returned to MSFC and now is on permanent display at the Alabama Space and Rocket Centre on a special platform mounted to the MPTA External Tank, which was used for early tanking tests.

Challenger (STA-099, OV-099)

Challenger, the second orbiter to become operational at KSC, was named after an American Naval research vessel that sailed the Atlantic and Pacific oceans during the 1870s. The Apollo 17 lunar module also carried the name of Challenger. Like her historic predecessors, Space Shuttle Challenger and her crews made significant contributions to growth of scientific knowledge. Challenger joined NASA's fleet of spaceships in July 1982. It flew nine successful Space Shuttle missions. On 28th January 1986, Challenger and its seven-member crew were lost 73 seconds after launch when a booster failure resulted in the destruction of the vehicle and loss of all hands.

Challenger started out as a high-fidelity structural test article (STA-099). The airframe was completed by Rockwell and delivered to Lockheed for structural testing on 4th February 1978. The orbiter structure had evolved under such weight-saving pressure that virtually all components of the airframe were required to handle significant structural stress. With such an optimised design, it was difficult to accurately predict mechanical and thermal loading with the computer software available at the time. The only safe approach was to submit the structural test article to intensive testing and analysis. STA-099 underwent 11 months of intensive vibration testing in a 43 tonne steel rig built especially for the Space Shuttle Test Programme. The rig consisted of 256 hydraulic jacks, distributed over 836 load application points. Under computer control, it was possible to simulate the expected stress levels of launch, ascent, on-orbit, re-entry and landing. Three 450 tonne-force hydraulic cylinders were used to simulate the thrust from the main engines. Heating and thermal simulations were also carried out.

Rockwell's original $2.6 billion contract had authorised the building of a pair of static-test articles (MPTA-098 and STA-099) and two initial flight-test vehicles (OV-101 and OV-102). A decision in 1978 not to modify Enterprise from her approach and landing test configuration would have left Columbia as the only operational orbiter vehicle so NASA awarded Rockwell a supplemental contract to convert Challenger (STA-099) from a test vehicle into a space-rated Orbiter (OV-099). STA-099 was returned to Rockwell on 7th November 1979 and its conversion into a fully rated Orbiter Vehicle was started. This conversion, while easier than it would have been to convert Enterprise, still involved a major disassembly of the vehicle. Challenger had been built with a simulated crew module and the forward fuselage halves had to be separated to gain access to the crew module. Additionally, the wings were modified and reinforced to incorporate the results of structural testing and two heads-up displays were installed in the cockpit.

Enterprise (OV-101)

Enterprise, the first Space Shuttle Orbiter, was originally to be named Constitution, however, Star Trek fans inundated the White House with letters urging President Ford to rename the vehicle to Enterprise. Designated, OV-101, the vehicle was rolled out of Rockwell's Air Force Plant 42, Site 1 Palmdale California assembly facility on 17th September 1976. On 31st January 1977, it was transported to NASA's Dryden Flight Research Facility at Edwards Air Force Base for the approach and landing test (ALT) programme.

The nine-month-long ALT programme was conducted from February to November 1977 at the Dryden Flight Research Facility and demonstrated that the orbiter could fly in the atmosphere and land like an aeroplane. The ALT programme involved ground tests and flight tests. The ground tests included taxi tests of the 747 shuttle carrier aircraft with the Enterprise secured atop of it to determine structural loads and responses and assess the joined capability in ground handling and control characteristics up to flight takeoff speed. The taxi tests also validated 747 steering and braking with the orbiter attached. A ground test of orbiter systems followed the unmanned captive tests. All orbiter systems were activated, as they would be in atmospheric flight. This was the final preparation for the manned captive flight phase.

Certain components were refurbished for use on flight vehicles being assembled at Rockwell's Palmdale Facility. The Enterprise was then returned overland to the Dryden Flight Research Facility on 6th September 1981. During May and June of 1983, Enterprise toured Great Britain, Germany, Italy, Canada and France and then returned to the Dryden Flight Research Facility. In 1984 Enterprise went to New Orleans for the 1984 World Fair. In November 1984 it was ferried to Vandenberg Air Force Base and used as a practice and fit-check verification tool. On 24th May 1985, Enterprise was moved from Vandenberg Air Force Base to the Dryden Flight Research Facility. On 18th November 1985, Enterprise became the property of the Smithsonian Institution and has remained there ever since.

Columbia (OV-102)

Columbia was named after the Boston, Massachusetts based sloop captained by American Robert Gray. On 11th May 1792, Gray and his crew manoeuvred the Columbia past the dangerous sandbar at the mouth of a river extending more than 1,600 kilometres through what is today south-eastern British Columbia, Canada, and the Washington-Oregon border. The river was later named after the ship. Gray also led Columbia and its crew on the first American circumnavigation of the globe, carrying a cargo of otter skins to Canton, China, and then returning to Boston. Other sailing ships have further enhanced the lustre of the name Columbia. The first U.S. Navy ship to circle the globe bore that title, as did the command module for Apollo 11.

Columbia was the first on-line orbiter to undergo the scheduled inspection and retrofit programme. It was transported on 10th August 1991, after its completion of mission STS-40, to Rockwell's Palmdale assembly plant. Columbia underwent approximately 50 modifications, including the addition of carbon brakes, drag chute, improved nose wheel steering, removal of development flight instrumentation and an enhancement of its thermal protection system. The orbiter returned to KSC 9th February 1992 to begin processing for mission STS-50 in June of that year.

Columbia was lost with all hands over east Texas on its landing descent to Kennedy Space Center on 1st February 2003, at 13:59 GMT at the conclusion of a microgravity research mission, STS-107.

Discovery (OV-103)

Discovery, the third orbiter to become operational at KSC, was named after one of two ships that were used by the Captain James Cook in the 1770s during voyages in the South Pacific that led to the discovery of the Hawaiian Islands. The other ship commanded by Cook was the Endeavour, the namesake of NASA's newest orbiter. Cook also used Discovery to explore the coasts of southern Alaska and north-western Canada.

Discovery benefited from lessons learned in the construction and testing of Enterprise, Columbia and Challenger. At rollout, its weight was some 3,120 kilograms less than Columbia. Discovery underwent a nine-month Orbiter Maintenance Down Period in Palmdale. The vehicle was outfitted with a 5th set of cryogenic tanks and an external airlock to support missions to the international Space Station.

Atlantis (OV-104)

Atlantis, the fourth orbiter to become operational at KSC, was named after the primary research vessel for the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute in Massachusetts from 1930 to 1966. The two-masted, 460 tonne ketch was the first US vessel to be used for oceanographic research. Such research was considered to be one of the last bastions of the sailing vessel as stream-and-diesel-powered vessels dominated the waterways. The steel-hulled ocean research ship was approximately 42 metres long and 9 metres wide to add to her stability. She featured a crew of 17 and room for five scientists. The research personnel worked in two onboard laboratories, examining water samples and marine life brought to the surface by two large winches from hundreds of metres below the surface. The water samples taken at different depths varied in temperature, providing clues to the flow of ocean currents. The crew also used the first electronic sounding devices to map the ocean floor.

The spaceship Atlantis has carried on the spirit of the sailing vessel with several important voyages of its own, including the Galileo planetary explorer mission in 1989 and the deployment of the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory in 1991. Atlantis benefited from lessons learned in the construction and testing of Enterprise, Columbia and Challenger. At rollout, its weight was some 3,170 kilograms less than Columbia. The experience gained during the Orbiter assembly process also enabled Atlantis to be completed with a 49.5 percent reduction in man hours (compared to Columbia). Much of this decrease can be attributed to the greater use of thermal protection blankets on the upper orbiter body instead of tiles. During the construction of Discovery and Atlantis, NASA opted to have the various contractors manufacture a set of 'structural spares' to facilitate the repair of an Orbiter if one was damaged during an accident. This contract was valued at $389 million and consisted of a spare aft-fuselage, mid-fuselage, forward fuselage halves, vertical tail and rudder, wings, elevons and a body flap. These spares were later assembled into the orbiter Endeavour. Atlantis was shipped to California to undergo upgrades and modifications. These modifications include a drag chute, new plumbing lines that configure the orbiter for extended duration, more than 800 new heat protection tiles and blankets and new insulation for the main landing gear doors, structural modifications to the Atlantis airframe. Altogether, 165 modifications were made to Atlantis over the 20 months it spent in Palmdale, California.

Endeavour (OV-105)

Endeavour, the newest addition to the shuttle fleet, is named after the first ship commanded by Captain James Cook, the 18th century British explorer, navigator and astronomer. On Endeavour's maiden voyage in August 1768, Cook sailed to the South Pacific to observe and record the infrequent event of the planet Venus passing between the Earth and the Sun. Determining the transit of Venus enabled early astronomers to find the distance of the sun from the Earth, which then could be used as a unit of measurement in calculating the parameters of the universe. In 1769, Cook was the first person to fully chart New Zealand. Cook also surveyed the eastern coast of Australia and navigated the Great Barrier Reef and travelled to Hawaii. Cook's voyage on the Endeavour also established the usefulness of sending scientists on voyages of exploration. While sailing with Cook, naturalist Joseph Banks and Carl Solander collected many new families and species of plants, and encountered numerous new species of animals. Endeavour and her crew reportedly made the first long-distance voyage on which no crewman died from scurvy. Cook is credited with being the first captain to use diet as a cure for scurvy, when he made his crew eat cress, sauerkraut and limes.

The Endeavour was small at about 360 tonnes, 30 metres in length and 6 metres in width. In contrast, its modern day namesake is about 75 tonnes, 36 metres in length and 24 metres wide. Endeavour was delivered to KSC in May 1991, and flew its first mission a year later in May 1992. Endeavour features new hardware designed to improve and expand orbiter capabilities. Most of this equipment was later incorporated into the other three orbiters during out-of-service major inspection and modification programmes.

Static Test Model (OK-TVA)

OK-TVA was used for heating, pressure and static vibration tests. The heating tests took the orbiter from -150 to 1500 °C and from atmosphere to vacuum, in real time. At the same time OK-TVA was subjected to load tests that took the airframe to 90% of design limits. These limits were 30% greater than the anticipated real loads. The OK-TVA was also subjected to 166 dB sounds at frequencies of 50 to 2000 Hz. These environmental tests resulted in the orbiters' structure and heat shield being redesigned. OK-TVA has been renovated and retiled to look just like Buran, and can currently be found in Gorky Park in Moscow where she has been converted into a space-theme restaurant.

Static Test Model (OK-TVI)

OK-TVI was used in the environmental chamber for heat and vacuum tests. Its current whereabouts, if it still exists, are unknown.

Static Test Model (OK-KS)

The static test model OK-KS was used for complex electronic tests and mock-up duties. The OK-KS was also used for electromagnetic interference tests. OK-KS still remains at the Energia factory in Korolev and can be seen there.

Orbiter Test Article (OK-ML-1 / OK-M)

OK-ML-1 was built in Moscow and was originally designated OK-M. She was used to test components and for normal temperature static load tests. She was also used to determine the moment of inertia of the orbiters and to test payload mass mock-ups. After this work she was redesignated OK-ML-1 and transferred to Baikonur for interface tests with Energia. Originally OK-ML-1 was to have taken part in the first flight test of Energia in 1983. She would have remained attached to the core and burnt up in the atmosphere. As the programme was behind schedule OK-ML-1 was just used for handling and pad compatibility tests. OK-ML-1 is currently lying outside the Baikonur Cosmodrome at Test-firing Pad Site 254. There are plans to eventually preserve her as a museum exhibit. Baikonur considered making the orbiter a monument in the city, however, a low bridge on the railway between the city and the spaceport made this impossible.

Orbiter Test Article (OK-ML-2 / OK-MT)

OK-ML-2 was originally designated OK-MT and used in Moscow for technological development and mockup tests. She was used for crew ingress and egress tests; hermetic integrity tests and for developing the loading procedures for gases and liquids. She was then redesignated OK-ML-2 and transported to Baikonur for functional interface tests with Energia. Originally she would have been expended on the second launch of the Energia booster, burning up in the atmosphere after testing separation from the rocket core. Again due to the programme being behind schedule she was spared like OK-ML-1. OK-ML-2 is currently stored alongside Ptitchka in the N-1/Energia building at Baikonur Cosmodrome.

Aerodynamic Test Article (OK-GLI)

OK-GLI is the Russian equivalent of the Enterprise shuttle flight tester. Unlike the Enterprise, which was launched from a converted 747 and glided back to Earth, OK-GLI was fitted with turbojet engines and was capable of launching itself and sustained powered flight. These engines allowed OK-GLI to fly from conventional air fields and conduct the repetitive tests necessary to develop the automated landing system. OK-GLI was used primarily for horizontal flight tests and had the same characteristics as the orbiter. OK-GLI was retired to the Zhukovskiy test centre near Moscow, and is often rolled out for exhibitions. From March 2000, OK-GLI has been on display at the entrance to Darling Harbor in Sydney, Australia. She will remain there for 2 years before beginning a tour of Australian cities and then return to Russia via selected South-East Asian capitals.

Buran (SS 1.01)

Buran is Russian for Snowstorm. Buran was built largely in Moscow before being moved to Baikonur for final assembly. There she was prepped and eventually straddled to the Energia booster system. Buran was the only Russian shuttle to go into space. This was done on 15th November 1988 on an unmanned two-orbit spaceflight. Buran landed herself with a 55 kph (34 mph) crosswind at Baikonur. The Russian space programme was already beginning to experience financial problems and Buran was immediately placed in preliminary storage. Buran was brought out a year later for the Paris Airshow which it flew to aboard the giant Antonov AN-225. Ownership of Buran and her sister ship Ptitchka was transferred to Kazhakstan, in exchange for extended use of the Baikonur launch facilities by Rosaviakosmos. Buran was destroyed on 12th May 2002 when the part of the N-1/Energia building she was stored in collapsed.

Ptitchka (SS 1.02)

Ptitchka is Russian for Little Bird. Ptitchka was almost fully complete at the cancellation of the Buran-Energia programmes. Only a small number of electronic systems needed to be installed, and she was the only shuttle fitted with life support systems. Her first flight was scheduled for 1993, when she would have been flown remotely to Mir. This never occured and all shuttle missions to Mir were carried out by the Amercian shuttles. Ownership of Ptitchka and her sister ship Buran was transferred to Kazhakstan, in exchange for extended use of the Baikonur launch facilities by Rosaviakosmos. Ptitchka now sits on top an Energia HLV mockup in the part of the N-1/Energia building that did not collapse.

Baikal (SS 2.01)

Baikal is Russian for Typhoon. Baikal was the third orbiter, and the first in the second series, that was being built when the programme was cancelled. The second series spacecraft incorporated improvements and minor tweaks that had come about from the flight of Buran and the construction of Ptitchka. The majority of improvements were made to the cockpit and instruments. Baikal was 50% complete when the Buran-Energia programme was cancelled. She has been partially disassembled and her remains sit outside the Tushino Factory in Moscow.

Unnamed (SS 2.02)

SS 2.02 was the fourth orbiter under construction, and was the second of the second series shuttles. At the time of cessation programme SS 2.02 was under construction at the Tushino Machine Building Plant in Moscow. Her level of completion was estimated between 10 and 20 %. Without funding, SS 2.02 remained unfinished on the factory floor for a number of years. She has since been dismantled.

Unnamed (SS 2.03)

SS 2.03 was the last shuttle to be built in Russia and the first to be dismantled. She was the latest model of the second series shuttles, and the fifth shuttle built at the Tushino Machine Building Plant in Moscow. As such, SS 2.03 was the least finished at the time of the programme cessation and has since been dismantled.